Electric Generator Essay Example for Free

Electric Generator Essay Early 20th century alternator made inBudapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of a hydroelectric station In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric charge (usually carried by electrons) to flow through an external electrical circuit. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, aninternal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy. Generators supply almost all of the power for the electric power grids which provide most of the worlds electric power. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable generators. History Before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were used. They operated on electrostaticprinciples. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current. They operated by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, and disks that carried charge to a high potential electrode. The charge was generated using either of two mechanisms: * Electrostatic induction * The triboelectric effect, where the contact between two insulators leaves them charged. Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating machines that produced very high voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power. The Wimshurst machine and Van de Graaff generator are examples of these machines that have survived. In 1827, Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with the electromagnetic rotating devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors, now called the Jedliks dynamo. In the prototype of the single-pole electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic. He formulated the concept of the dynamo at least 6 years beforeSiemens and Wheatstone but didnt patent it as he thought he wasnt the first to realize this. In essence the concept is that instead of permanent magnets, two electromagnets opposite to each other induce the magnetic field around the rotor. It was also the discovery of the principle of self-excitation.[1] Faraday disk, the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle. In the years of 1831–1832, Michael Faraday discovered the operating principle of electromagnetic generators. The principle, later called Faradays law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage. This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction. Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs. Dynamos are no longer used for power generation due to the size and complexity of the commutator needed for high power applications. This large belt-driven high-current dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts, or 2,170 watts, when spinning at 1400 RPM. Dynamo Electric Machine [End View, Partly Section] (U.S. Patent 284,110) The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The dynamo uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical rotation into direct currentthrough the use of a commutator. The first dynamo was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils. Through a series of accidental discoveries, the dynamo became the source of many later inventions, including the DC electric motor, the AC alternator, the AC synchronous motor, and the rotary converter. Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. The early machines were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii. Faraday developed the rotating rectangle, whose operation was heteropolar each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite directions.[2] The first public demonstration of a more robust alternator system took place in 1886.[3] Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H. Gordon, in 1882. Lord Kelvin andSebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz. In 1891, Nikola Tesla patented a practical high-frequency alternator (which operated around 15 kHz).[4] After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases.[5] Later alternators were designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric motors.[6] Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal use of alternating current for power distribution. Before the adoption of AC, very large direct-current dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution. AC has come to dominate due to the ability of AC to be easily transformed to and from very high voltages to permit low losses over large distances. Electromagnetic generators Dynamo Main article: Dynamo Dynamo Electric Machine (end view, partly section, U.S. Patent 284,110) A dynamo is an electrical generator that produces direct current with the use of a commutator. Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for industry, and the foundation upon which many other later electric-power conversion devices were based, including the electric motor, the alternating-current alternator, and the rotary converter. Today, the simpler alternator dominates large scale power generation, for efficiency, reliability and cost reasons. A dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical commutator. Also, converting alternating to direct current using power rectification devices (vacuum tube or more recently solid state) is effective and usually economic. Alternator Main article: Alternator Without a commutator, a dynamo becomes an alternator, which is a synchronous singly fed generator. Alternators produce alternating current with a frequency that is based on the rotational speed of the rotor and the number of magnetic poles. Automotive alternators produce a varying frequency that changes with engine speed, which is then converted by a rectifier to DC. By comparison, alternators used to feed an electric power grid are generally operated at a speed very close to a specific frequency, for the benefit of AC devices that regulate their speed and performance based on grid frequency. Some devices such as incandescent lamps and ballast-operated fluorescent lamps do not require a constant frequency, but synchronous motors such as in electric wall clocks do require a constant grid frequency. When attached to a larger electric grid with other alternators, an alternator will dynamically interact with the frequency already present on the grid, and operate at a speed that matches the grid frequency. If no driving power is applied, the alternator will continue to spin at a constant speed anyway, driven as a synchronous motor by the grid frequency. It is usually necessary for an alternator to be accelerated up to the correct speed and phase alignment before connecting to the grid, as any mismatch in frequency will cause the alternator to act as a synchronous motor, and suddenly leap to the correct phase alignment as it absorbs a large inrush current from the grid, which may damage the rotor and other equipment. Typical alternators use a rotating field winding excited with direct current, and a stationary (stator) winding that produces alternating current. Since the rotor field only requires a tiny fraction of the power generated by the machine, the brushes for the field contact can be relatively small. In the case of a brushless exciter, no brushes are used at all and the rotor shaft carries rectifiers to excite the main field winding. [edit]Induction generator Main article: induction generator An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that uses the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotor faster than the synchronous speed, giving negative slip. A regular AC asynchronous motor usually can be used as a generator, without any internal modifications. Induction generators are useful in applications such as minihydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because they can recover energy with relatively simple controls. To operate an induction generator must be excited with a leading voltage; this is usually done by connection to an electrical grid, or sometimes they are self excited by using phase correcting capacitors. [edit]MHD generator Main article: MHD generator A magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot gases through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery. MHD generators were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of a steam power plant. The first practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25, developed in 1965. The U.S. government funded substantial development, culminating in a 25 MW demonstration plant in 1987. In the Soviet Union from 1972 until the late 1980s, the MHD plant U 25 was in regular commercial operation on the Moscow power system with a rating of 25 MW, the largest MHD plant rating in the world at that time.[7] MHD generators operated as a topping cycle are currently (2007) less efficient than combined cycle gas turbines. [edit]Other rotating electromagnetic generators Other types of generators, such as the asynchronous or induction singly fed generator, the doubly fed generator, or the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed generator, do not incorporate permanent magnets or field windings that establish a constant magnetic field, and as a result, are seeing success in variable speed constant frequency applications, such as wind turbines or otherrenewable energy technologies. The full output performance of any generator can be optimized with electronic control but only the doubly fed generators or the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed generator incorporate electronic control with power ratings that are substantially less than the power output of the generator under control, a feature which, by itself, offers cost, reliability and efficiency benefits. Homopolar generator Main article: Homopolar generator Faraday disk, the first homopolar generator A homopolar generator is a DC electrical generator comprising an electrically conductive disc or cylinder rotating in a plane perpendicular to a uniform static magnetic field. A potential difference is created between the center of the disc and the rim (or ends of the cylinder), the electrical polaritydepending on the direction of rotation and the orientation of the field. It is also known as a unipolar generator, acyclic generator, disk dynamo, orFaraday disc. The voltage is typically low, on the order of a few volts in the case of small demonstration models, but large research generators can produce hundreds of volts, and some systems have multiple generators in series to produce an even larger voltage.[8] They are unusual in that they can source tremendous electric current, some more than a million amperes, because the homopolar generator can be made to have very low internal resistance. Excitation A small early 1900s 75 KVA direct-driven power station AC alternator, with a separate belt-driven exciter generator. Main article: Excitation (magnetic) An electric generator or electric motor that uses field coils rather than permanent magnets requires a current to be present in the field coils for the device to be able to work. If the field coils are not powered, the rotor in a generator can spin without producing any usable electrical energy, while the rotor of a motor may not spin at all. Smaller generators are sometimes self-excited, which means the field coils are powered by the current produced by the generator itself. The field coils are connected in series or parallel with the armature winding. When the generator first starts to turn, the small amount of remanent magnetism present in the iron core provides a magnetic field to get it started, generating a small current in the armature. This flows through the field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which generates a larger armature current. This bootstrap process continues until the magnetic field in the core levels off due to saturation and the generator reaches a steady state power output. Very large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field coils of the larger. In the event of a severe widespread power outage where islanding of power stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform a black start to excite the fields of their largest generators, in order to restore customer power service. Electrostatic generator Main article: electrostatic generator A Van de Graaff generator, for class room demonstrations An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is a mechanical device that produces static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and lowcontinuous current. The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory to explain its behavior and often confused with magnetism. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other) power to transform mechanical work into electric energy. Electrostatic generators develop electrostatic charges of opposite signs rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces, and work by using moving plates, drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high potentialelectrode. The charge is generated by one of two methods: either the triboelectric effect (friction) or electrostatic induction. [edit]Wimshurst machine Main article: Wimshurst machine Wimshurst machine with two Leyden jars.Suppose that the conditions are as in the figure, with the segment A1 positive and the segment B1 negative. Now, as A1 moves to the left and B1 to the right, their potentials will rise on account of the work done in separating them against attraction. When A1 and neighboring sectors comes opposite the segment B2 of the B plate, which is now in contact with the brush Y, they will cause a displacement of electricity along the conductor between Y and Y1 bringing a negative charge, larger than the positive charge in A1 alone, on Y and sending a positive charge to the segment touching Y1. As A1 moves on, it passes near the brush Z and is partially discharged into the external circuit. It then passes on until, on touching the brush X, has a new charge, this time negative, driven into it by induction from B2 and neighboring sectors. As the machine turns, the process causes exponential increases in the voltages on all positions, until sparking occurs limiting the increase.| The Wimshurst influence machine is an electrostatic generator, a machine for generating high voltages developed between 1880 and 1883 by Britishinventor James Wimshurst (1832–1903). It has a distinctive appearance with two large contra-rotating discs mounted in a vertical plane, two crossed bars with metallic brushes, and a spark gap formed by two metal spheres. Van de Graaff generator Main article: Van de Graaff generator A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator which uses a moving belt to accumulate very high voltages on a hollow metal globe on the top of the stand. It was invented by American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929. The potential difference achieved in modern Van de Graaff generators can reach 5 megavolts. The Van de Graaff generator can be thought of as a constant-current source connected in parallel with a capacitorand a very large electrical resistance, so it can produce a visible electrical discharge to a nearby grounding surface which can potentially cause a spark depending on the voltage.

An Analysis on the Process of Adjudication

An Analysis on the Process of Adjudication Law is a â€Å"strange compound which is brewed daily in the caldron of the Courts† Hon. Benjamin N Cardozo[1]. The work of deciding cases goes on every day in hundreds of courts throughout the land. Any judge, one might suppose, would find it easy to describe the process which he had followed a thousand times and more. Benjamin Cardozo begins his Judicial Process with these words which with lyrical lucidity show what goes on in a court. It is deciding cases. To a layman, adjudication presents a picture of a court where a judge presides, listens to arguments of rival parties through their counsels and in the end, renders a decision which holds a person liable or acquits him of the charges that were labelled against him. To a lawman who is not untutored in the craft, adjudication means something more. When courts decide cases, they perform two distinct, though interrelated, functions. First, they settle the controversy between the parties: they determine what the facts were and apply the appropriate rules to those facts. This is the function commonly known as adjudication[2].While performing their second function, courts decide what the appropriate rules are and how they fit in a particular case. Deciding what rules are applicable often requires the courts to reformulate and modify the scope of existing rules. The second function is sometimes referred to as judicial lawmaking[3]. While adjudicating cases, a judge may be faced with a question of law or a question of fact or a mixed question of law and fact. Besides, he may come across a case which the existing law does not cover, that is the question to be decided by the court was unforeseen by the legislature while enacting the law. Tools available to a judge while deciding a question generally include the statutory provisions, pr ecedent laid down by an earlier court, and the certain overarching principles like that of natural justice and equality. Judicial function performed by the judges requires them at times to use their discretions and rely on certain -principles that lie extraneous to the realm of the enacted law. This is one aspect of adjudication that has stirred much jurisprudential waters over a long period. Questions invariably asked have been: whether judges only declare the law; whether they only interpret the law; whether they only discover the law or whether they make law also. There are two aspects of judicial function that come to fore: The first-which can be traced back to at least Hale and Blackstone-is that judges merely find and declare the law rather than create it. Thus, judges are, allegedly, not a source of law†.[4] The second aspect of judicial juristic techniques that receives much publicised attention is the doctrine of precedent.[5] The function of adjudication subsumes certain intricately intertwined issues. The tool of interpretation plays an important role in adjudicatory process. It may be said that Adjudication is interpretation[6], given the fact that Adjudication is the process by which a judge comes to understand and express the meaning of an authoritative legal text and the values embodied in that text.[7] Interpretation, whether it be in the law or literary domains, is neither a wholly discretionary nor a wholly mechanical activity. It is a dynamic interaction between reader and text, and meaning the product of that interaction.[8]To recover an old and familiar idea, namely, that adjudication is a form of interpretation would build bridges between law and the humanities and suggest a unity among mans many intellectual endeavours. A proper regard for the distinctive social Function of adjudication, and for the conditions that limit the legitimate exercise of the judicial power, will require care in identifying the kinds of texts to be construed and the rules that govern the interpretive process; the judge is to read the legal text, not morality or public opinion, not, if you will, the moral or social texts. But the essential unity between law and the humanities would persist and the judges vision would be enlarged.[9]The words and phrases are symbols that stimulate a mental reference to referents.[10]And it becomes relevant given the fact that the problem of interpretation is a problem of words and their effectiveness as a medium of expression to communicate a particular thought. One of the important aspects on interpretation is to find the intention of the members of the legislature whose creation, that is the enactment, outlives them. Salmond says that the true duty of the judicature is to act upon the true intention of the Legislature-the mens or se ntentia legis. However, the way this duty is to be performed becomes tedious in that judges have only the barren words to confront with and to find the intention of the legislature. The question of interpretation also brings forth the question: do judges make law while interpreting the law? Does the finding of intention amount only to discovery of law or does it mean creation of law? Interpretation often is instrumental in the birth of new precedents, and there have been arguments put forth that say precedents are clearest examples of judicial law making. Dworkinian thesis of how judges decide cases avers that judges merely discover law; they do not make law. However, it has been argued that when judges discover legislative intent, they in fact invent it instead of discovering it[11]. The growing complexities of modern day life throw new challenges and problems in myriad manifestation before the judges, who at times may be tempted to cross the restraints of written words of law, besides being confronted with question of morality and needs of justice. There may surface a problem which the law when enacted could not foresee. Or the law relating to a particular issue is shrouded in ambiguity. Many a time, a judge may have to trace that golden thread from the labyrinth of legalese and factual matrix that will help him reach the desired goal of rendering justice. Often, it is very difficult to do so. The process of adjudication requires a judge to be attentive and aware of the several factors which at times may have a telling impact upon the rights of people, besides jeopardising the cherished goal of doing justice. Performance of judicial function is an onerous task given the kind of responsibility a judge has to shoulder within the constitutional and statutory constraints that hedge him or her from all sides, though leeway for creativity does exist given the tools of interpretation a judge is armed with.13 Innovation comes to the rescue of judge when confronted with a novel case that demands that the judge acts in a way that justice is done: The discussion and deliberation that follow in the coming chapters focus on some of the key aspects of adjudication primarily that of Dworkins, and an effort is made to critically analyse the various facets of Dworkins theory of adjudication before reaching a conclusion in the light of criticisms levelled against them. 3.2  ADJUDICATION vis-a-vis SEPARATION OF POWERS Within the realm of law, adjudication enjoys a place of prominence. Primarily the task of the courts is to adjudicate upon the issues that arise in disputes between parties which may be an individual, at times, state, and on occasions both the state and individuals. In the modem era, the role of the judges has become more complex and it is now a far cry when compared with the role a judge had to play eons ago. The evolution of the society and the legal system has entrusted the judges with newer powers and functions. Now their area of operation is not confined to decide questions that arise between individuals as Geoffrey Rivlin reminds that First, where there is any dispute about constitutional law, the judges must decide what the law is. Their most important role, however, is to act as an independent check on the power of the executive. Only the courts have the authority to stop any individual or body of persons from exceeding their powers, or making improper use of their powers. Th is is known as preventing an abuse of power. When we speak of judges, it means the entire hierarchy of judges who operate in different courts. The problems arising before the courts and decisions to be rendered are different in nature depending upon the courts. The factors that influence the outcome of an adjudicatory process vary greatly, and so do the decisions of the court. Be that as it may, there are a score of issues that need to be dealt with when we consider the process of adjudication. 3.3  DISPUTE REVIEW BOARD/DISPUTE ADJUDICATION BOARD This method of international dispute resolution, first tried successfully in the 1980s in Central America, is now regularly used in respect of large international construction and infrastructure contracts. These contracts provide for the appointment of a panel of experts, generally construction practitioners (engineers, lawyers, economists), either at the time of signature or in the course of the execution of the contract. For example, contracts relating to the construction of the Vasco Da Gama bridge, over the River Tagus in Portugal, provided for the appointment of two panels (technical and financial) of three experts each. For the Channel Tunnel, between France and the United Kingdom, the designation of apanel of three experts and two alternates was provided for in contracts. Members of the .dispute review board/dispute adjudication board (DRB/DAB) are appointed by the parties in the same way as an arbitral tribunal is constituted, with one major difference. The panel is generally appointed at the very beginning of the project and for its whole duration, whereas arbitrators are appointed only in the context of a dispute. Each party nominates its experts and the two appointed experts designate the third that is, unless the parties have agreed on a different appointment mechanism. A one-member DRB/DAB may also be appointed DRB/DABs typically follow a project from beginning to end (through site visits, study of monthly reports, exchanges of correspondence, miscellaneous reports, etc.), This-is so that they are able, upon the request of a contracting party; to react promptly and knowledgeably and, if necessary, to issue an opinion, recommendation or decision in written form. DRB/DAB experts are usually paid monthly or, for on-site interventions, by the hour. The DRB/DAB may intervene in either a flexible or a more formal manner. In the former, it acts as an advisory body. A party or several parties may, by a simple and informal request, ask for a preliminary written opinion. This opinion is considered provisional in that it does not bind either the parties or the DRB. In the latter, the DRB/DAB plays a more formal role, insofar as it issues either a decision or a recommendation, on a procedure that enables each of the parties to express its ideas fully. Once the panel of experts has handed down its opinion, decision or recommendation, each of the parties indicates, generally within a fixed time limit, whether or not it accepts the decision or recommendation. If the decision is not accepted, recourse to the jurisdictional procedure (before a State court or an arbitral tribunal) remains possible. 3.4  DWORKIN’S THEORY OF ADJUDICATION The courts are the capitals of laws empire, and judges are its princes, but not its seers and prophets. Dworkin, Laws Empire, 407(1986) Introduction In laws empire, judges enjoy a prominent position. They are entrusted with the task of adjudication, which affects the lives of people in ways both seen and unseen. Rights of people who approach the apostle of justice stand to lose or gain depending upon how the judge presiding over the court views a case. Importance of judges in legal arena is reflected in Dworkins writing when he begins his Laws Empire with these words: It matters how judges decide cases. It matters most to people unlucky or litigious or wicked or saintly enough to find themselves in court.[12] The difference between dignity and ruin may turn on a single argument that might not have struck another judge so forcefully, or even the same judge on another day[13]. A single nod of a judge may rob a person of his liberty or protect his liberty. It may mean life or death for a person.[14] The role played by judges assumes more importance today. Given the fact that they perform one of the tedious tasks in a society, it becomes desirable to see and analyse how they do what they do. In view of the foregone discussion in the previous chapter that touched upon the vexed question of what is law and the myriad facets of adjudication that are crucial to the understanding of how law operates in laws empire, the theory of adjudication as developed by Dworkin assumes due importance, especially given the parallels that are perceptible in the time that preceded Dworkins theory. One such parallel can be seen in Blackstones declaratory theory that dealt with the famous account of judging which holds that judges find (or declare), rather than make, law. In the introduction to the Commentaries, Blackstone states that the judges job is to determine the law not according to his own private judgment, but according to the known laws and customs of the land; the judge is not delegated to pronounce a new law, but to maintain and expound the old one. 3.4.1  ADJUDICATION: DWORKIN’S APPROACH To Dworkin, law is an interpretive concept†. By making this claim, he tries to distinguish his philosophy from what he calls semantic theories of law, which refer to positivist theories, like that of John Austin and Herbert Hart. According to him, these theories suppose that that law has a meaning which is shared by lawyers and others. This shared meaning consists of rules for using the word law. These rules, in turn, tie law in positivist theories to historical facts, such as the enactment of a statute or the decision of a case. Dworkin suggests that disagreement about the law, under positivist theories, would invoke legal argument in adjudication only about the historical fact made relevant by the shared meaning of law. He considered three theories of law-conventionalism, pragmatism and law as integrity in Laws Empire. Only the last of these is interpretive, but each, he argues, is compatible with his interpretive theory of meaning, which he describes as the view that the doc trinal concept of law is an interpretive concept. 3.4.2  ADJUDICATION OF HARD CASES The theory of hard cases provided by positivism, according to Dworkin, envisages that when a particular law suit cannot be brought under a clear rule of law, laid down by some institution in advance, then judge has discretion to decide the case either way. He says the opinion of the judge seems to assume that one or the other party had a pre-existing right to win the suit, but idea only is a fiction. In reality, he has legislated new legal rights, and then applied them retrospectively to the case at hand.[15] Dworkin tries to provide an alternative method of adjudication which he calls naturalism. It is noteworthy how he builds up his theory of adjudication in the following manner:[16] I shall start by giving the picture of adjudication I want to defend a name, and it is a name which accepts the crude characterization. I shall call this picture naturalism. According to naturalism, judges should decide hard cases by interpreting the political structure of their community in the following, perhaps special way: by trying to find the best justification they can find, in principles of political morality, for the structure as a whole, from the most profound constitutional rules and arguments to the details of, for example, the private law of tort or contract. Prior to elaborating further on the methodology adopted by Dworkin, it will serve some purpose to see how he disagrees with the general understanding of how judges go about doing what they actually do. He believes that the common story about the way judges function is misleading, and misses certain notable points. He finds a further level of subordination in such a story which goes unnoticed. It is expected that when make law, they will act not only as a deputy to the legislature but also as a deputy legislature. However, Dworkin reasons:[17] They will make law in response to evidence and arguments of the same character as would move the superior institution if it were acting on its own. This is deeper level of subordination, because it makes any understanding of what judges do in hard cases parasitic on a prior understanding of what legislators do all the time. According to him, this subordination is both conceptual and political. He believes that judges are not deputy legislators, and they should not be as well. It is misleading to assume that they are legislating when judges go beyond the political decisions which have been made already by someone else. He argues that such an assumption misses the fundamental distinction between arguments of principle and arguments of policy. It is noticeable, Dworkin argues that the distinct outline here is an improvement upon the distinction between principle and the policy that he made under chapter two of Taking Rights Seriously, one of the virtues among others being that this formulation â€Å"prevent the collapse of the distinction under the artificial assumption described before[18]. It should be pointed out here that both the arguments justify political decisions; it is only the way they justify such decisions that differs. Arguments of policy justify a political decision by showing that the decision advances or protects some collective goal of the community as a whole[19] whereas the arguments of principle justify a political decision by showing that the decision respects or secures some individual or group right.[20]The justification of legislative program of any complexity, says Dworkin, will require both sorts of arguments. According to him, a program that is chiefly a matter of policy may require strands of principle to justify it[21]. Sometimes, it may so happen that a program which is generated by policy may be qualified by principle and vice versa. In a hard case where no settled rule dictates a decision either way, then, Dworkin says, it might seem proper that a proper decision could be generated by either policy or principle.[22]He cites the case of Spartan Steel Alloys Ltd. V. Martin Co. f02. In this case, the employees of the defendant company had broken the electric cable which belonged to a company which supplied power to the plaintiffs factory, which was shut down during the period the cable was repaired. Whether to allow recovery for economic loss following negligent damage to someone else’s property was the question to be decided before the court. Here, there are two ways open before the court. Dworkin says â€Å"It might have proceeded to its decision by asking whether a firm in the position of the plaintiff had a right to recovery, which is a matter of principle, or whether it would be economically wise to distribute liability for accidents in the was plaintiff suggested, which is matter of policy. Dworkin lays down his thesis: Judicial decisions in civil cases, even in hard cases like Spartan Steel, characteristically are and should be generated by principle not policy. 1 [1] Benjamin Cardozo, The Nature Of The Judicial Process, 10 (1921) [2] James L. Houghtling, The Dynamics of Law 13(1963) [3] Ibid [4] Rajeev Dhavan et. al. (ed), Judges and the Judicial Power 1 2 (1985) [5] Ibid. [6] Owen M. Fiss, Objectivity and Interpretation, 34 Stan. L. Rev. 739. [7] Ibid [8] Ibid. Fiss says, It is an activity that affords a proper recognition of both the subjective and objective dimensions of human experience; and for that reason, has emerged in recent decades as an attractive method for studying all social activity. The idea of a written text, the standard object of legal or literary interpretation, has been expanded to embrace social action and situations, which are sometimes called text-analogues. [9] Ibid. Indeed, interpretation is defined as the process by which the meaning of a text is understood and expressed, and the acts of understanding and expression necessarily entail strong personal elements. At the same time, the freedom of the interpreter is not absolute. The interpreter is not free to assign any meaning he wishes to the text. He is disciplined by a set of rules that specify the relevance and weight to be assigned to the material (e.g., words, history, intention, consequence), as well as by those that define basic concepts and that established the procedural circumstances under which the interpretation must occur. Id. at 744. [10] G Williams, Language and the Law, 61 LQR 73. [11] For a detailed analysis see, Chapters 4 and 5. Also see, Upendra Baxi, On How Not to Judge the Judges: Notes towards Evaluation of the Judicial Process, 25 JILl 210 (1983). [12] Ronald Dworkin, Laws Empire 1(2002, Indian Reprint) [13] Ibid. [14] Dworkin says, People often stand to gain or lose more by one judges nod than they could by any general act of Congress or Parliament. Ibid [15] Supra note 70 at 81 [16] Ronald Dworkin, Natural Law Revisited, 34 University of Florida Law Review 165 at 165- 166(1982). Suppose the question arises for the first time, for example, whether and in what circumstances careless drivers are liable, not only for physical injuries to those whom they run down, but also for any emotional damage suffered by relatives of the victim who are watching. According to naturalism, judges should then ask the following questions of the history (including the contemporary history) of their political structure. Does the best possible justification of that history suppose a principle according to which people who are injured emotionally in this way have a right to recover damages in court? If so, what, more precisely, is that principle? Does it entail, for example, that only immediate relatives of the person physically injured have that right? Or only relatives on the scene of the accident, who might themselves have suffered physical damage? Ibid. [17] Supra note 70 at 82 [18] Ibid [19] Ib.id. F~r example, The argument in favour of a subsidy for aircraft manufacturers, that the subsidy WIll protect defense, is an argument of policy. Ibid. [20] Ibid. For instance, The argume~t in favour of anti-discrimination statutes, that a minority has a nght to equal respect and concern, IS an argument of principle. Ibid. [21] Ibid. [22] Supra note 70 at 83. Emphasis added.

Customer Loyalty Cards In Uk Retail Industry Marketing Essay

Customer Loyalty Cards In Uk Retail Industry Marketing Essay UKs retail industry is one of the most organised industries in the world where retailers like Tesco, Mark Spencers and Sainsbury are holding the good position in the market. The purpose of my research project is to analysis the comparison between the customer loyalty programs of in the UK retail industry where most of the retailers are trying their best to control the maximum share of customer through their loyalty program. In UK every retailer is doing or planning to implement a very different customer engagement loyalty scheme so that it could get maximize the customer power through its effective data base management which hold so much information about the customer like customers buying behaviour, income level, spending habits, medical spending, and so on. My research will try to find out the question: Does retailers success is directly related to its successful loyalty program implementation? For getting the best result for the research a qualitative survey interviews will be ta ken from 10 -15 employee of different retailers. Report will discuss the research question, literature review and adopted methodology for the research. Collected data would be analysed through SPSS software and the total research would take around three months to complete. 2. Introduction: Impact of loyalty programs on retailers business is perceived to be very positive despite the fact that some of the very big retailers like Asda are not using these programs on wide scale for getting customer loyalty. In retail industry loyalty programs are very popular and most of the big retailers use this for increasing the business through customers loyalty. Loyalty programs are part of structured Relationship Marketing activities which encourages customer towards loyal buying behaviour and ultimately leads to companys profit. According to Market research done on customers loyalty patterns, it is tough to get exponential growth by launch of a loyalty scheme because competitive forces reduces its impact on overall retail industry. In retail industry a rewards card, club card, loyalty card, or advantage card is cards which give the membership to the customer who hold it. In UK most of the retailer are running loyalty growth model through loyalty cards for creating more business by knowing customers buying behaviour. UK is one of the biggest markets in the world for customer loyalty card market where almost every big retailer is running its loyalty card scheme. In 1981 Gary Wilson invented the first loyalty card or discount card which is known by the name of Passcard and later on it is known as Passkey however few people believed that passcard was not first discount card. In 1982 first loyalty card is started by one of the leading retail named Sainsbury. In November 1993 boots the chemist retails chain first started the loyalty card scheme in UK market and later on in 1997 with the investment of 30 million GBP it launched Boots Advantage card which gout huge success representing the 3rd largest retail loyalty scheme in the UK market with around 17 million customers. My research question analysis the positive co-relation between the retailers success and loyalty card program. Most of the retailers are trying to use loyalty card schemes as most powerful tools for making their business better in this recession period. There are lot of work have been done which tells direct co-relation between loyalty cards scheme and consumer buying behaviour but how successful retailers are because of these loyalty programs is not widely researched yet. One of the prominent retailer Asda dont believe in investing the money in loyalty scheme rather it prefer to offer cheapest product rang to attract the customer loyalty. On the other hand another big retailer Tesco press release said Double points has encouraged more customers to sign up; a higher proportion of transactions are now using a Club card and 18% more households are redeeming Club card vouchers than a year ago(Retail Week, May 2010) Club cards are integral part of some retailers strategy like Tesco, Sainsbury while retailers like Asda are expanding their business very rapidly with loyalty programs so my research will analysis the effectiveness of club card schemes on retailers success. Club card is scheme is very expensive so its not necessary that every retailer is growing only because of these schemes. There are so many loyalty schemes but very little research represented the effectiveness of loyalty program. (Kivetz and Simonson, 2002; Yi and Jeon, 2003) 3. Literature Review: According to Oliver (1997) loyalty is a deeply held commitment to re-buy or re-patronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitive same-brand or same-brand-set purchasing despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behaviour. Literature on relationship marketing practices like loyalty card scheme is divided into two groups; one group of researcher believe that loyalty scheme have positive effect on customer loyalty and that will result in increased profitability and revenues of the organization. However on the other hand second group of researcher believe that loyalty program slightly influences retailers revenue and profitability through customers loyalty. Customers shop from other retailer also where they are not attaching to any loyalty program. These researchers believe that customers behaviour is not affected by loyalty schemes rather they shop according to their convenience. Retailers stra tegic planning is to enhance customer loyalty which has positive influence on organisation development, revenues, profitably and culture (Dick Basin, 1997). Customer Loyalty Research Center (2001) described loyalty as the commitment of customer to a particular brand or company. Most researchers have discussed the loyalty card scheme with respect to consumer loyalty. According to Capizzi and Ferguson (2003) one billion people are attached to any kind of loyalty program all over the world. In terms of loyalty schemes satisfied consumers show more loyalty than that of unsatisfied consumer towards the company (Bailey Schultz, 2000). Few researchers Grinnell (2003) and OBrien and Jones (1995) discussed positive effect on customer loyalty however some author like Sharp and sharp 1997 could not find the proof of an impact on customer loyalty of loyalty card schemes. Organisations growth is related to customer loyalty so big retailers try to attract more customer through loyalty programs. Tesco since inception of loyalty program has spent  £150 million through 1% discount to the customers against the point earned. Tesco claims that club card has made it no. 1 retailer in the UK since 1995 when it started loyalty program. According to Rosenspan (1998) loyalty programs dont create customer loyalty towards the companys products or services. Asda also fo cuses on discounting on purchasing rather than on loyalty programs. Some of the author argues about 80-20 law but top 20% customers of loyalty schemes are not always loyal to the one companys product rather they customers look for best value for the money with any retailers. Researchers views are very divided on loyalty programs or customer relationship marketing (CRM) really affect customer loyalty so that companies could grow and be more profitable. According to the Feinberg and Kadam (2002) loyalty programs create differentiation among the retailers rather than impacting on customers purchase behaviour or satisfaction. On the other hand Seybold (2001) counter the above statement by saying that CRM helps companies to enhance their revenues and profitability if they positioned their products according to customers need. Very few retailers try to position their products according to customers needs rather through loyalty schemes they get to know the category wise buying behaviour of customers and by using that data retailers launched own branded products for higher profits. In most of the cases impact of loyalty programs is evaluated post launce of the schemes but for knowing the actual impact of loyalty programs there must be a comparison between pre an d post data. According Sharp and Sharp, 1997 pre launch data of loyalty programs are not available and it cant not be gathered after the scheme launch. He categorised the customers in two group one group of customer who participated in the loyalty scheme called treatment group and another group who did not participated in the loyalty program named as control group. According to him both group must be analysed for getting the real impact of loyalty programs. The retailers are very smart to invest huge amount on these loyalty programs Tesco claims that it has more that 14 million active club card user in 2009 after investing GBP 150 million on relaunch of loyalty scheme. Retailers in UK invest huge money for loyalty programs but are all the retailers are getting bigger only with these schemes or they are using the customers data for launching their own branded products for getting higher market share in highest selling categories.Sainsbusry is the only retailer in UK retail industry which acquired 50 % turnover by adopting the own branded strategy for increasing the market share and profit. According to OBrien and Jones (1995) loyalty schemes creates the customer loyalty if company knows how to use and share that knowledge. Researchers views are divided on both point positive impact of loyalty program and negative impact of program but more authors are inclined towards positive impact of programs on companys success. Majority of programs are planned to increase the repeat purchase of customers and once the repeat purchase increase retailers get increased turnover through the higher footfalls. According to Sharp and Sharp (1997) loyalty programs have the capability to influence the repeat purchase pattern of the customer but the change might be very little but only this kind of marketing practices which can influence customer repeat purchase pattern. Through my research question I would like make a positive co-relation between loyalty programs and customers loyalty in UK retail industry. 4. Research Methodology According to the Zikmund (1997) research methodology is integral part of a report which consist of sampling of data, research strategy, hypothesis, research limitations and other different techniques. According to the literature review impact of loyalty programs on customer loyalty and company performance is positive as well as negative hence there are mixed views of different researchers for both the arguments. My research is to find out positive relation between loyalty program and customer loyalty based on two hypotheses- H1- Retailers which implemented loyalty programs performed much better through enhancing customers loyalty. H2- Customer loyalty is directly related to retailers performance Research Approach According to the Lundahl Skarvad (1999) fundamentally basically there are two kinds of research approaches deductive approach and inductive approach. A deductive approach has been selected as quantitative data have to be collected through the questionnaires. For my research this approach would serve the purpose. Selected research approach is helpful to establish the relationship between loyalty program and customer loyalty. Questionnaire will consist the question related to number of cards retailers having, benefits of cards, frequency of visit to store, redemption benefit and how loyal customer is because of loyalty card. These kinds of question will help in finding the relation between two variables. Data Collection Methods After seeing the accuracy of the outcome data i have selected quantitative method of data collection i.e. through questionnaire survey. There are two kinds of data which can be used for research -primary data and secondary data. During my research Ill collect primary data through conducting questionnaire survey. Than after i would look for secondary data for finding the literature reviews and other data required for the analysis like magazines, newspapers, journals, etc. Questionnaire- According to the Chisnall (1992) there are three different kind of questionnaire personal interviews, self administered questionnaire and telephonic interviews; but I have selected self- completion questionnaire because of its low cost and it gives enough time to respond. Questionnaire will be distributed through the mail to loyalty card holder in the retail industry for finding out the key relation. Most of the question would be close ended in the survey and some of the question would be scale based so that i could get some comparative data within the industry. There are so many factors like price sensitivity, repeat purchase, loyalty, brand loyalty so through these questionnaires specific questions would be based on these key points. Sampling Strategy Questionnaire would be distributed to the 400 customers through mail who are involved in any of the loyalty schemes so that they could give right feedback. Main idea of the research so to find the positive relation between two variables through analysing the customer view in retail industry. Sampling would be done with in UK in different geographical, demographical, age group, gender and income level of the customers. Survey would be send to the customers randomly so that best result could be found out. Sampling of the survey is an important part for this research as most of the research analysis is based on primary data through survey. Unit of analysis in this research would be customers who are involved in any of the loyalty scheme in retail industry.I,ll try to focus more on female respondents because in most of the cases female do shop for the whole family and they can tell the best view about the customer loyalty through loyalty programs. Time Limit Overall research will take around three months to complete as data has to be collected from primary as well as secondary resources. Sampling of the questionnaire and getting its feedback will take around 6 to 8 weeks while data analysis and compiling will take rest of the time. Strength and Limitation of the proposed design Success rate of the research seems to be very satisfactory as there would not be problem to find out the respondents during my research. Most of the UK population is attach to any of the loyalty schemes in the retail industry and through the questionnaires Ill get the expected results. There are very less chances to get low feedback from the customers because time constraint is not attach with this survey and itll not take too much time to complete the survey. Secondary data is another important resource for getting the important data so that a genuine relationship could be find out between the loyalty programs and customer loyalty in the industry. The survey design is having one more strength i.e. low cost attach to it for conducting and designing it. There are so much research have been done related to customer loyalty and customer relationship marketing but there is less literature available on loyalty programs and customer loyalty relationship.Althouth loyalty programs are the part of customer relationship marketing (CRM) and i used those resources as secondary data. Due to time frame random sampling has been selected but some of the respondents might not have experienced the loyalty schemes so results may have some limitation in terms of accuracy but itll not affect the final outcome of the research. 5. Analysis and Interpretation I have taken the quantitative methods of data collection through self administered questionnaire and the objective the questionnaire survey is to recognise the factors which influence the customer loyalty with respect to loyalty programs in retail industry. The first part of the questionnaire would collect the personal information about the customer where as the second part would gather the information about repeat purchase through loyalty programs. The collected data through questionnaire would be analysed through the SPSS software which gives the accurate analysis. The gathered data would be analysed by some quantitative methods like regression, co-relation analysis and hypothesis test. The gathered quantitative data would be examined for reliability according to the Cronbachs alpha values where 0.7 or higher values are the most appropriate value of Cronbachs alpha which reflects the internal reliability of quantitative data. Alpha can take positive as well as negative values but only positive values (less than or equal to 1) would have the significance. This is the widely used method for score. We have to analyse the relationship between two variables so well use the co-relation analysis to analyse the linear relationship. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient r given by Karl Pearson evaluates the relationship between two variables. If the Value of coefficient can be -1 or +1 if the variables reflect very strong relationship, if the value of coefficient is in between -1 and +1 relationship is less strong positively and negatively but if the value is close to zero than relationship is very weak. Co-relation between loyalty programs and customer loyalty woul d be analysed. Regression analysis is the statistical tools to examine the relationship between a dependent and 1 or more independent variables and Probability distribution can also be used for this analysis. Regression analysis specifically tells how the value of a dependent variable varies when value of one independent variables changes where as other independent variables are constant. Regression analysis is useful to find out the effect of every independent variable on the relationship. Regression analysis will tell the how customer loyalty gets influence by the different actor of loyalty programs run by the retailers. It will also tell which factors of loyalty programs influence the customers repeat purchase pattern to the larger extent. History of regression started with method of least squares analysed by Legendre  in 1805 but now there are three kinds of regression analysis General multiple regression, Linear regression and stepwise multiple regression .The most widely used analysis is G eneral multiple regression analysis which uses all the independent variable to form one linear equation.Minimun number of sample size is required for the regression analysis and that size can be 50 or more. I have taken a good number of sample sizes so that the analysis of the data could give authentic and accurate results. Significance level or unbiased test would be used for hypothesis testing. There are so many factors which influence the customer repeat purchase pattern through loyalty programs and become the base for customer loyalty. Co-relation and regression analysis will be done to analysis the positive relationship between the variables according to the research question. 6. Ethical issues Data collection is very tedious task in terms of ethical issues related to it. There could be following issues which can directly relate to the research. Privacy and Confidentiality Most of the customers wants their information related to their profession as well as personal must be kept secret. During the research this issue could be handled by giving assurance to the customers that your information will be kept only for the research purpose. There are so many software like survey monkey which can be used for maintaining the confidentiality of the customers information. Integrity- Your identification must be disclosed to the customers so that they could freely answer the questionnaire as well as there should not be anything which may destroy the dignity or researcher. There would be some questions based on the customers income level which would be direct question so customer might hesitate in answering them.During the Overall research only these issues might arise as most of the research based on the customer loyalty and customer repeat purchase. 7. Reflections The overall research is based on finding out the positive relation between retailers loyalty programs and customer loyalty which influence the retailers business growth and profitability. The research is planned to get the data from 400 customers who are involved in any kind of loyalty scheme through questionnaire survey in the retailer industry. Business school resources would be used for conducting the research and the collected data would be analysed through SPSS software. I, m expecting 60-70% reply of my survey questionnaire which Ill send to the customers in the city and in university campus also. Research would require a proper time management as the whole research have to be effectively complete in 8-10 weeks. There are following resources would be require for the research like a computer/laptop, access to library or database, database from the industry or company and a supervisor to guide in research. Business school has already organised the training session for the softwar e learning and other required resources for the research so would be sufficient for the research. Customers response to the questionnaire might be low in that case secondary data would be used for analysis of the research and some time customer might give some wrong information in the survey which can jeopardised the research objective. Interaction with the supervisor would give the guideline for the research in planned manner and continuous feedback will give right corrective measure for the research. Research could be more extended as own brand play an important role in the repeat purchase pattern of the customers behaviour. Most of retailers loyalty programs are made to gather info for own brand positioning and according to the time frame i can add this in my research. Proposed research is very realistic and will contribute in retail industry for establishing the relationship between loyalty programs and customers loyalty. The research will also provide the analysis for the customers of loyalty programs and how they affect the performance of the company.

Jeffersonian Republicans Vs. Federalists Essay -- essays research pape

As the young colonies of America broke away from their mother country and began to grow and develop into an effective democratic nation, many changes occurred. As the democracy began to grow, two main political parties developed, the Jeffersonian Republicans and the Federalists.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each party had different views on how the government should be run. The Jeffersonian Republicans believed in strong state governments, a weak central government, and a strict construction of the Constitution. The Federalists opted for a powerful central government with weaker state governments, and a loose interpretation of the Constitution. Throughout the years, the political parties have grown, developed, and even dispersed into totally new factions. Many of the inconsistencies and changes can be noted throughout the presidencies of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Thomas Jefferson entered office in 1800, he came in with lots of new ideas and goals as the president. Jefferson believed in a smaller central government with stronger state governments. He was a Republican and favored the view of strict construction. He believed that, â€Å"Our country is too large to have all its affairs directed by a single government†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Document A). Jefferson and his Republican party believed in a government that was going to work for the people and that was going to have them at its best interests. That is why they believed in having stronger state governments, they were closer to home and to the people they were governing, therefore they knew more of what the public needed. Document B also refers to strict construction and Jefferson’s beliefs. It talks about the freedoms that were stated in the constitution, mainly, the freedom of religion. Jefferson believes that the federal government should not have any say in dea ling with religion of the people. The Republicans believed that any law stated in the Constitution should be strictly followed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Jefferson’s presidency wore on, the Jeffersonian Republican beliefs began drifting farther away from the original ideals they began with. Some of the decisions made by Jefferson proved to follow the loose construction of the Constitution of the Federalists. When he made the decision to purchase the Louisiana Territory, he never obtained congressional approval. He... ...ter the country as a whole. John Randolph, a Democratic Republican of the time even suggested that the Jeffersonian Republicans were taking on the old Federalism principles during Madison’s term. Document F explains how, â€Å"this government created and gave power to Congress to regulate commerce†¦not to lay a duty but with a steady eye to revenue†¦Ã¢â‚¬    Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the country grows and matures into a great nation, people realize that change is inevitable and sometimes even needed. Within the time period of 1802 to 1817, many Jeffersonian Republicans realized that their ideals and principles weren’t always best for the nation. That is why they adopted some of the ideals of the old Federalist Party. Also, during this time, the Federalists died out. As realized after the Hartford Convention, the nation did not need nor want the Federalists anymore if the Democratic Republicans could get the job done. Although people changed a great deal during this time, it seemed to be beneficial to the nation. If people had not grown and never continued to learn and aspire to what is needed, then we may have never gotten to this great nation that the United States of America is today. Jeffersonian Republicans Vs. Federalists Essay -- essays research pape As the young colonies of America broke away from their mother country and began to grow and develop into an effective democratic nation, many changes occurred. As the democracy began to grow, two main political parties developed, the Jeffersonian Republicans and the Federalists.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each party had different views on how the government should be run. The Jeffersonian Republicans believed in strong state governments, a weak central government, and a strict construction of the Constitution. The Federalists opted for a powerful central government with weaker state governments, and a loose interpretation of the Constitution. Throughout the years, the political parties have grown, developed, and even dispersed into totally new factions. Many of the inconsistencies and changes can be noted throughout the presidencies of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Thomas Jefferson entered office in 1800, he came in with lots of new ideas and goals as the president. Jefferson believed in a smaller central government with stronger state governments. He was a Republican and favored the view of strict construction. He believed that, â€Å"Our country is too large to have all its affairs directed by a single government†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Document A). Jefferson and his Republican party believed in a government that was going to work for the people and that was going to have them at its best interests. That is why they believed in having stronger state governments, they were closer to home and to the people they were governing, therefore they knew more of what the public needed. Document B also refers to strict construction and Jefferson’s beliefs. It talks about the freedoms that were stated in the constitution, mainly, the freedom of religion. Jefferson believes that the federal government should not have any say in dea ling with religion of the people. The Republicans believed that any law stated in the Constitution should be strictly followed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Jefferson’s presidency wore on, the Jeffersonian Republican beliefs began drifting farther away from the original ideals they began with. Some of the decisions made by Jefferson proved to follow the loose construction of the Constitution of the Federalists. When he made the decision to purchase the Louisiana Territory, he never obtained congressional approval. He... ...ter the country as a whole. John Randolph, a Democratic Republican of the time even suggested that the Jeffersonian Republicans were taking on the old Federalism principles during Madison’s term. Document F explains how, â€Å"this government created and gave power to Congress to regulate commerce†¦not to lay a duty but with a steady eye to revenue†¦Ã¢â‚¬    Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the country grows and matures into a great nation, people realize that change is inevitable and sometimes even needed. Within the time period of 1802 to 1817, many Jeffersonian Republicans realized that their ideals and principles weren’t always best for the nation. That is why they adopted some of the ideals of the old Federalist Party. Also, during this time, the Federalists died out. As realized after the Hartford Convention, the nation did not need nor want the Federalists anymore if the Democratic Republicans could get the job done. Although people changed a great deal during this time, it seemed to be beneficial to the nation. If people had not grown and never continued to learn and aspire to what is needed, then we may have never gotten to this great nation that the United States of America is today.

Thomas Edison Essay example -- History Biography

I decided to do my report on Thomas Alva Edison because he brought a lot of things into our world. He invented the light bulb, the alkaline battery, the phonograph, and many other things. Many of our modern electronics origins came from Thomas A. Edison. I thought he was very interesting. That is why I chose him. Thomas Alva Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, on February 11, 1847, and lived with his middle class parents, Samuel Edison (his father) and Nancy Edison (his mother). Surprisingly, the young boy did not even talk until he was four years old. In 1854, at age seven, Tom and his parents moved to Port Huron, Michigan. There, near the beginning of the year in a noisy schoolhouse with 38 other kids, his teacher lost his patience with Tom's behavior and endless questions. So, his mother pulled him out of school and home taught him very well, for she used to be a teacher. But, Tom's parents were not educated enough to home teach Tom, for his growing interest in things dealing with physics found his parents stumped. Luckily, his parents had enough money to hire a tutor. By age twelve, he had persuaded his parents to let him sell snacks and newspaper on the railroad. By age fourteen, he had published his first newspaper called the "Weekly Herald." At its high point, Tom sold 400 copies per day and was getting $10 per day (which was a lot back then). Because of the newspaper, he now had enough money to focus more on experiments. Tom now had one lab in the basement of his home and kept things for experiments in his locker on the train. One day, while crossing a bumpy section of the track, the train jerked, letting a chemical from Tom's experiment fall on the floor and set fire to the train. The conductor was so mad he hit... ...three more children. When Thomas grew older, so did his deafness. Mina told Tom what people were saying by tapping the words on his knee in Morse code. All in all, Thomas Edison was not a very good father because he was busy all the time. However, this busyness and hard work changed our lives with his many inventions. One of his famous quotes describes his attitude, "Invention is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration." Thomas Edison died on October 18, 1931 in West Orange, New Jersey. At his funeral, these words were spoken, "Picture an electric-lightless, an electric-powerless, a telephoneless, a motion-pictureless, a phonographless world, and a faint realization of his greatness dawns upon us." Bibliography Kevles, D., Keysarr A., Maier P., & Smith, M. (2002) A History of the United States: Inventing America. New York: W.W. Norton.

Overfishing Effects More Than Just the Ocean

Salmon migrate yearly from the open Pacific Ocean to the coastal areas of the Pacific Northwest in order to spend about 5-6 weeks reproducing. During this time bears also migrate to these coastal areas to feed on the salmon which is a large part of their diet. This natural interaction has been an important factor of the ecosystem in the Pacific Northwest for many years and now that humans have imposed on this process by overfishing we are seeing changes in the ecosystem itself. While knowledge of this issue has been around for about 30 years, scientists only began researching it beginning in the early 90’s. According to this research the ongoing problem of overfishing is already beginning to show its effects on the ecosystem, what may happen to the forests and animals of the Pacific Northwest if this issue is not resolved? Through the research of Dr. Tom Reimchen and other scientists, an interaction between salmon and the forests of the Pacific Northwest has been discovered. Each year black and grizzly bears travel from far away to the streams and rivers in the Pacific Northwest to feed on the salmon that migrate there during their six week spawning period. This causes a local interaction, when the bears catch a fish they take it into the forest so they can eat it and not be disturbed. Usually the bears only eat about half of each fish they catch and leave the rest on the forest floor, which is then consumed by birds, other small animals and insects. Through the decomposition of the salmon as well as the bodily wastes of the bears and other animals, the soil in the forest absorbs nutrients as well as nitrogen from the salmon. â€Å"The use of stable nitrogen isotopes allows us to identify the relative contribution of salmon to the ecosystem† (Reimchen 2001: 14), this research showed that nitrogen 15, an isotope of nitrogen is present in a large number of the plants in the Pacific Northwest forests. Nitrogen 15 is mostly found in marine algae and salmon are highly enriched with it so it makes sense that the plants use the remnants of the salmon as a sort of fertilizer to make them grow causing large scale interaction. The presence of the nitrogen in the plants of the Pacific Northwest forests does not mean that the plants necessarily need it to grow. In another experiment performed by Reimchen he sought to answer this question, â€Å"I examined yearly growth rings of 13 trees of similar size from sites differing in (salmon) carcass density. Average growth rate over the last 50 years was 2. 5mm per year within 10m of the stream where carcasses were most abundant and less than 1mm per year where carcasses were not present† (Reimchen 2001: 14). These results are debatable because other factors such as the amount of rainfall and sunlight they get effect plant growth too, but another observation which backs the theory that nitrogen helps the plants grow is that the amount of salmon brought into the forest by the bears each year varies directly with the amount of salmon coming back to the stream each year. In the conclusion of his research thus far Reimchen believes that if it is not stopped, â€Å"†¦ the result of deforestation and overfishing will have ecosystem-level consequences for the remaining forests† (Reimchen 2001: 16). Due to the overfishing of salmon by humans, the migrating salmon population has reduced 80-90 percent in the last 100 years. In nature predators and prey coexist in equilibrium, but with human interference the salmon can not reproduce fast enough to keep up with the amount being caught resulting in a large decrease in their population. Although there are programs like the MSY or maximum sustainable yield in place which tells fisheries how many fish they are allowed to catch, they do not factor in the natural predators of the salmon and therefore they throw off the balance of the ecosystem. A direct result of over fishing is the harvesting of salmon in fish farms, the salmon are raised in net pens that usually float in areas off the coast. The biggest problem with fish farming is the fish escaping into the wild, for example in 1997, 360,000 salmon escaped from a single farm off the Washington coast. The salmon raised on fish farms are, â€Å"†¦ ed concentrated feed and medication to maximize the conversion of feed into growth while minimizing the loss of fish due to disease and escape† (Reimchen 2001: 139), the effects of the salmon raised on farms escaping into the wild may be genetic, ecological, and can cause problems with disease and parasites. The genetic problems the farm salmon can cause are they will interbreed with wild salmon and disrupt their genetic adaptations, replacing their genetic variability and their evolutionary potential. The competition for food, space, and habitat between the farmed and wild salmon could also be a problem. Farmed fish sometimes get sea lice or ISA a contagious lethal virus that they can pass to the wild salmon. All of these factors are depleting the amount of wild salmon as well as altering the way the salmon live. Another contributing factor to the decline of the salmon population is the political ecology involved. On one side there are the people willing to do anything in their power to protect and restore the status of the salmon in the pacific northwest, but on the other more powerful side are the people who see the salmon as a huge money maker and are doing everything they can to continue overfishing so they can profit from it. The fisheries not only catch salmon so they can sell it locally, but where they get the most money from is shipping it to large grocery store chains across the country. They must overfish in order to meet the demands of the stores they supply or else the stores will go to another source for salmon, so many fisheries ignore the problem and continue overfishing because they think that if they stop someone else is just going to come in profit off of what they are not catching. The problem with overfishing and fish farms are not only harming the salmon population, but if nothing is done about these issues it will effect the animals in the pacific northwest as well as the vegetation. Black and Grizzly bears get around 75% of their yearly dietary requirements from the salmon, with the amount of salmon available becoming less and less each year the bears are not going to have enough to eat and their population will decrease as a result. I also think that with the introduction of the farmed salmon and the diseases they can carry the bears may get sick and die from eating diseased fish. With less bears the vegetation in the pacific northwest will also suffer because less salmon will be transferred into the forests where the plants can absorb the nitrogen and the plants will not grow as much or as quickly, it may also make the plant population less diverse. I believe that the overfishing needs to be controlled by more extreme measures so that the salmon can be allowed to reproduce naturally and keep their population up. If companies sold salmon raised in a fish farm at lower prices and raised the price of wild salmon this may help as well because the more expensive it is, the less people will buy and the fishing companies will not have to catch as many. Its kind of like how you can go to the store and buy either regular fruit or pay extra for organic, and there is always people who are willing to pay more. I also think that fish farms should not be integrated in the coastal waters, they should be in a completely different location than the wild salmon so there is no chance of them escaping and contaminating the wild salmon. In addition to the repercussions of fish farming and overfishing on the ecosystems in the Pacific Northwest forests, deforestation is another action by humans that is threatening this area. With the growth rates of the trees already falling due to lack of nitrogen from salmon and humans cutting them down at an alarming rate, it is inevitable that unless serious steps are taken to protect both the salmon and the forest itself from humans the ecosystem in the Pacific Northwest will fail and the forests will be completely destroyed. References 1)Frissell, C. (1995). Topology of Extinction and Endangerment of Native Fishes in the Pacific Northwest. Conservation Biology, 7. http://www.jstor.org/pss/2386432 2)Reimchen, T. (Fall 2001). Salmon nutrients, nitrogen isotopes, and coastal forests. Ecoforestry. 3)Sachs, J. (15, Jan. 2010). Icon for an Endangered Ecosystem. http:// www.nwf.org/News-and-Magazines/National-Wildlife/Animals/Archives/2010/Icon-for-an-Endangered-Ecosystem.aspx

Diabetes Paper

Diabetes is a disease in which the body does not produce or properly use insulin. The cause of diabetes continues to be a mystery, although both genetics and environmental factors such as obesity and lack of exercise appear to play roles. This Metabolic disorder causes the body to lose its main source of fuel considering that the blood contains large amounts of glucose (since diabetic people are usually obese people or people who have large contents of glucose in their bodies). After digestion, glucose passes into the bloodstream, where it is used by the human cells for growth and energy.In order for glucose to get into cells, a hormone called insulin must be present. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas, a large gland behind the stomach. Insulin is a hormone that is needed to convert sugar, starches and other food into energy (glucose), this substance is essential for a human being’s continued existence. Upon food consumption, the pancreas automatically produces the right amount of insulin to move and synthesize glucose from the blood into the human cells.However, the pancreas either produces little or no insulin for people affected with diabetes, the cells in these cases do not respond appropriately to the insulin that is produced. Glucose builds up in the blood, overflows into the urine. This causes the glucose to be discharged out of the human body in the form of urine. This is basically a metabolism disorder – the problem lies with how the food is digested by the human body ingesting it (National Diabetes Clearing House).There are 2 main types of Diabetes; the first being known as â€Å"Insulin dependent diabetes† or what is now being termed as â€Å"Type 1 diabetes†, and the second type known as â€Å"Non- insulin dependent diabetes† also known as â€Å"Type 2 diabetes†. II. Type 1 Diabetes (Insulin Dependent Diabetes) Type 1 Diabetes (Insulin-dependent diabetes) is a disorder best characterized with the occurrence of frequent urination, extreme thirst, constant hunger, blurred vision, and extreme fatigue on the part of the subject.This strain unlike the type 2 diabetes strain is most prevalent in young individuals, who usually contract this disease around the age of 14. Type 2 diabetes is in contrast acquired during the latter stages of an individuals life probably due to an unhealthy lifestyle. The Insulin dependent diabetes strain — accounts only for approximately 5 percent or less of diabetes in the U. S. (Armstrong, C. 1990). People affected with Type 1 Diabetes like others affected with other diabetes strains, have defective pancreas glands.These glands are supposed to be the ones which secretes the insulin hormone. The insulin hormone is the hormone which facilitates the conversion of Glucose to a form which allows for assimilation by the human cells. Since the pancreas releases a very limited amount of insulin (in some cases none at all) the glucose which is not assim ilated is diverted to the bloodstream to be excreted by the kidneys in the form of urine. It is on this stage that the kidneys, would be forced to try to remove the excess sugar, excreting large amounts of water and essential body elements in the process.Kidney failure, and Heart problems are among those complications which may arise from the said illness. Modern Science has allowed type 1 diabetes victims another lease on life when alternative medical solutions were developed. As of the moment the only cure available today for type 1 diabetes is a pancreas transplant, which is needless to say quite dangerous, expensive and very rarely done. However, even if the said transplant was a success (new pancreas is rejected by half of the people who get this operation), the organ which was transplanted, incur a very high risk of being rejected by the subject’s body.If rejection occurs (as in most cases) this would entail constant usage of suppression drugs to maintain immune reactio n suppression. The side effects of immune-suppressive drugs can be very severe and even worse than the disease. Statistics show that one or two people out of every 10 who get the surgery die within a year. Of course it follows that if the surgery fails the disease would eventually return. Recently, experimental treatments with stem cells have shown some promise. For most people, type 1 diabetes is a life-long disease that can be effectively managed with insulin.Margolis S. 2006. ) II. Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes The Non-insulin dependent diabetes strain also known as type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes. Some complications of type 2 diabetes would include: heart disease (cardiovascular disease), blindness (retinopathy), nerve damage (neuropathy), and kidney damage (nephropathy). The main difference between the first and second strain of diabetes is that the first one occurs in the early phases of an individuals life, while the latter occurs usually in the later sta ges.This type of diabetes is preventable but un-curable unlike the first type. It is a possibility for a human being to actually be affected with this kind of disease without actually knowing it. Scientists nowadays are still looking into the factors which may have caused insulin resistance. Unfortunately, the answer to this question is yet to be unearthed. In the case of Type 2 diabetes, the problem would either be caused by the fact that the body does not produce enough insulin or it may be that the cells ignore the insulin.It was found out by common observation and research that the frequency of occurrence of this disease usually occurs among obese or overweight individuals. It is a known fact that most people who develop this type of diabetes are overweight. Scientists are still looking for a clue as to why obesity increases the risk of developing diabetes, but the common consensus agreed upon is that obesity is a major factor leading to non-insulin-dependent diabetes.Scientists are continually studying cells to see why this might happen (What Causes Non-insulin Dependent Diabetes? . The usual symptoms to identify whether if an individual is affected or not would be the Increased thirst and frequent urination, Extreme hunger, Rapid weight loss, Fatigue, Blurred vision, Slow healing sores or frequent infections, and in some cases Patches of dark velvety skin in the folds and creases of Subject’s bodies — usually in the armpits and neck. This condition, called acanthosis nigricans, is a sign of insulin resistance (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2007).In this particular strain of diabetes the only possible action which could be done is prevention, since as mentioned earlier there is no known cure to this chronic disease. To combat the effects of this disease, the advisable things to do would be to watch or monitor the level of blood glucose, proper exercise, good eating habits, and occasional insulin dosages. Apparently the said measure is capable of reduci ng the risk and dangers brought about by complication of this disease to about 50% (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2007). III. ConclusionDiabetes is a chronic disease which still baffles even the most learned of physicians since as far as technology is concerned, the immediate, reliable and consistent cure is yet to be had. As far as affected individuals are concerned the best cure is still prevention, and this could be done by living a healthy lifestyle (eating healthy food and proper exercise), and by taking necessary medication. The hope that the cure is on the verge of being discovered still looms on the horizon. Hopefully, the said cure would be found soon to relieve the millions suffering worldwide.